Attitude – definitions, formation and how to change

What is an attitude ? 

Attitude is acquired tendency. this word frequently used by us in our day to day life. In its common sense it refers to an individual’s specific state of mind through which he expresses his opinions and feelings towards some conditions, things, events and persons in his social environment.

Three Dimension of attitude 

• One Dimensional Approach (Affective Component)
• Two Dimensional approach (Behaviour Component)
• Three Dimensional Approach (Cognitive Component)

Affective Component (Neural) (Feeling/ Emotion)  

Behavioural Component (Readiness) (Response/ Action)  

Cognitive Component (Mental) (Belief/ Evaluation)

One Dimensional Approach – Affective component / Evaluative Aspect

According to Martin Fishbein and Izek Ajzen (1975), attitude is “a disposition to respond favourably or favourably towards some psychological object”. 

For example, someone who believes that smoking every day is bad for their health would hold an attitude toward smoking.

In 1928, L.L. Thurstone defined attitude as “the sum of personal tendencies and feelings, prejudice and bias, thought, belief, fear and anxiety on any subject”. 

In 1931, he described it as “to be affected or not to be affected by the psychological object”.

The affective component is the emotional response (liking/disliking) towards an attitude object. Most of the research places emphasis on the importance of affective components. An individual’s attitude towards an object cannot be determined by simply identifying its beliefs about it because emotion works simultaneously with the cognitive process about an attitude object. Agarwal & Malhotra, (2005) express that the affect (feelings and emotions) and attitude (evaluative judgement based on brand beliefs) streams of research are combined to propose an integrated model of attitude and choice.

Two Dimensional Approach – behavioural Component 

The behavioural component is a verbal or overt (nonverbal) (Wicker 1969)behavioural tendency by an individual and it consists of actions or observable responses that are the result of an attitude object. It involves a person’s response (favourable/unfavourable) to do something regarding an attitude object. Attitudinal responses are more or less consistent. That is, a series of responses toward a given attitudinal stimulus is likely to show some degree of organisational structure, or predictability (Defleur & Westie 1963).

Three Dimensional Approach – Cognitive Component 

The cognitive component is an evaluation of the entity that constitutes an individual’s opinion (belief/disbelief) about the object. Cognitive refers to the thoughts and beliefs an individual has about an attitude object. Fishbein & Ajzen (1975) express theta belief is information a person has about an object; information that specifically links an object and attribute. The cognitive component is the storage section where an individual organises the information. 

Criteria or Nature of Attitude 

1. Valence— it refers to the degree of favorableness or unfavorableness to the object or event in question. 
2. Multiplexity— components of attitude have the characteristic of multiplexity. It means the number of elements a component has. Higher the number of elements in a component the more complex it would be. 
3. Consistency— it is found more among the valence factors than among multiplexity.

• Valence:

• • • Definition: Valence refers to the degree of favorableness or unfavorableness of an attitude towards a particular object, person, or event.
    • Explanation: Attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral. Valence represents the emotional or evaluative aspect of an attitude. For example, a positive valence towards education might result in supportive behaviours like actively seeking educational opportunities.

• Multiplexity:

• • • Definition: Multiplexity refers to the number of elements or components within an attitude.
    • Explanation: Attitudes are often multifaceted, consisting of various components such as beliefs, emotions, and behaviours. The more elements involved in an attitude, the more complex and nuanced it becomes. For instance, an attitude toward a political candidate may include elements related to their policies, personal characteristics, and past actions.

• Consistency:

• • Definition: Consistency in the context of attitude refers to the coherence or stability of the attitude over time.
  • Explanation: While consistency is more commonly associated with valence factors, it also plays a role in the overall structure of attitudes. Consistency suggests that attitudes tend to remain relatively stable and do not change abruptly. This stability can contribute to the predictability of behaviour based on attitudes. For example, if someone consistently expresses a positive attitude towards environmental conservation, it is likely that their behaviours will align with this attitude over time.

Characteristics of Attitudes

1. Attitude is learned: This statement aligns with the idea that attitudes are not innate but are acquired through experiences and the process of socialisation. Individuals develop attitudes based on their interactions with others and their environment.
2. Attitude gives direction: This highlights that attitudes influence behaviour. Positive attitudes can motivate actions that support or align with the attitude, while negative attitudes may lead to avoidance or opposition to the object or event.
3. Relative permanency: This suggests that attitudes are generally stable over time and are not easily or quickly changed. Changes in attitudes happen gradually, reflecting a certain degree of persistence in one’s evaluative judgments.
4. Attitude is always related to some issue, object, or thing: Attitudes are context-specific and are directed towards specific issues, objects, or events. They don’t exist in isolation but are tied to particular elements in one’s environment or experiences.
5. Attitude has motivational properties: This statement underscores that attitudes are not just passive evaluations but can have an active role in motivating behaviour. Positive attitudes can encourage certain actions, while negative attitudes may deter individuals from engaging in specific behaviours.

Development & Formation of Attitude

1. Wants Satisfaction –  we tend to develop a favourable attitude toward things which help us satisfy our needs. As is well known, whenever something hinders our reaching a goal or stops us from doing something that we want to or frustrate our attempts to satisfy our goals and needs, we feel negatively for those things which stand in our way.
2. Given Information – Information given to the individual also plays an important role in the formation of attitudes. In modern society modern means of communication, particularly radio and television, play an important role in shaping the opinions, views and attitudes about many issues of public concern. Although not all types of information have equal effect on attitudes.
3. Classical Conditioning – According to classical learning a neutral stimulus comes to elicit an unconditioned response when repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Social psychologists opine that it applies to the development of attitudes as well. For example, when a child repeatedly listens from his father that Pakistan is an enemy country, and all the terrorist activities in our country are Pakistan supported, the child gradually develops a negative attitude towards Pakistan, even though initially the word Pakistan was a neutral word for him.
4. Instrumental Conditioning –  According to this theory of learning states, we learn those responses that are rewarded and show an increased probability of repeating such responses. However, we tend not to repeat responses that are punished. Studies reveal that children develop attitudes maintained by their parents simply because holding such attitudes is rewarding. Exhibition of attitudes and behaviour similar to parents is often met with reward and praise from parents and dissimilarities or deviation is met with punishment and admonition. Thus children soon learn that holding attitudes similar to that of parents is instrumental in getting the desired results.
5. Observational learning –  A number of behaviours are learned by watching the activities of others and the outcome of such activities. Children growing up often watch parents and significant others in the family and society doing things which they follow without questioning the wisdom or logic behind these activities. They follow without question only because they trust in the wisdom of their parents and significant others in the family and society.
6. Group Affiliations –  Group affiliations are an important source of formation and development of attitude. An individual adopts the values, norms, opinions, beliefs and way of behaviour in order to become an acceptable member of that group, because following the line suggested by the group is rewarding. Besides, the group exerts pressure for conformity to the group and nonconformity is met with punishment. According to social psychologists group affiliations affect attitude formation. 
   1. Primary Group – Primary group is the immediate group of the individual that is family, peer group etc. Such groups have a limited number of members and enjoy face to face interactions. Since primary groups are based on close cooperation, affinity and compassion members of primary groups often develop similar attitudes.
   2. Reference Group – Reference group is a group, the individual is not a member of which but he aspires to be like members of that group. Thus such a group is used as standard for reference or comparison. Usually a person identifies with such groups by changing or adopting values, norms, goals similar to that of a reference group.
7. Cultural Factors – Cultural factors also affect the development of attitudes. Every society has its culture and every culture has its traditions, norms, values, religion etc. Thus socialisation of every person is affected by the cultural factors of that society. Studies reveal that people reared in different cultures exhibit different attitudes while people reared in the same culture show similarity of attitudes. For example, a marriage proposal between first cousins is viewed favourably in Muslim culture while in Hindu culture it is viewed with disdain.
8. Personality Factor – Personality traits also have an important role to play in the formation and development of attitudes. Attitudes which are in consonance of personality traits are acquired easily. In a research study it was found that persons with a highly organised attitudinal system accept the merits and demerits of their personality as a matter of conscience. Some other studies found that people with low IQ and literacy levels are usually conservative, suspicious, hostile and have a tendency to attribute their faults to others.
9. Stereotypes – Every society is characterised with some stereotypes. Stereotypes are simple generalised expectations about people of other groups. For example, it is believed that women as compared to men are more religious and suggestible, it leads to development of certain attitudes towards women.

Attitude Change

• Attitude is acquired tendency 

Psychologists claim that attitude change is of two types

• Congruent change

• Incongruent change.

When a favourable attitude becomes more favourable after an incident, it is congruent change. However, when attitude change is unfavourable, that is the direction of change is opposite of the already held attitude, it is called incongruent change.

Factors that affect attitude change

1. Changing reference group – Psychologists found that change in reference group leads to change in attitude as well. In one of the experiments Newcomb (1950) found that a group of fresh entrants of girls were conservative as they were coming from a family of conservative parents. However, the environment of the college promoted liberalism and one of the aims of college was to promote liberalism among students. In the last year of college it was found that girls had shifted from conservatism to liberalism.
2. Changing group affiliations – This has direct bearings on change in attitudes. It has been observed that when a person breaks ties with an old group and joins a new one, he readily adopts norms, values, opinions and beliefs of the new group. Therefore change in attitudes is also there. 

However, change in attitude or change in group affiliations depend on two things

1. 1. Characteristics of group
   2. Characteristics of membership in group

By characteristics of the group we mean norms, values and beliefs of the group. If the standards, norms, beliefs and values of a new group are more attractive to the individual then the individual is likely to change his attitudes more readily. Similarly, characteristic of membership refers to the individual’s position in the new group. If a new position in a new group grants greater status and power and prestige , then the individual is more likely to change his attitude in the direction held by the group. For example, if a leader is changing his affiliations from BJP to Congress Party, he may find himself elevated to the national level, certainly he would change his attitudes more in favour of Congress and its policies. 

Persuasive Communication: By persuasive communication we mean communication of such facts and information as are attractive and appealing to the listener and has direct bearing on the attitudes of the person.

Change in attitude through persuasive communication depends on four factors: 

1. 1. Source of communication 
   2. Characteristics and content of communication 
   3. Channel of communication
   4. Characteristics of audience

By source of communication we mean the person who provides information for attitude change. Studies reveal that there are certain characteristics of source which are effective in producing attitude change and these are: 

1. 1. Credibility of the communicator 
   2. Attractiveness of the communicator
   3. Content and characteristic of communication

Theories of Attitude

1. Festinger’s Cognitive dissonance theory
2. Rosenberg’s affective-cognitive consistency theory
3. Kelman’s three process theory

Festinger’s Cognitive dissonance theory

Cognitive dissonance theory, developed by psychologist Leon Festinger in 1957, is a psychological theory that explores the discomfort individuals feel when they hold conflicting beliefs or attitudes. According to Festinger, people have a natural drive to maintain consistency in their cognitive structures, and when they experience inconsistency, they are motivated to resolve the dissonance.

When two or more contradictory cognitive elements lie to each other then cognitive dissonance happens. the individual wants to remove it. 

Cognitive dissonance occurs when our beliefs and actions aren’t in sync and we feel uncomfortable. As a result of cognitive dissonance, we often alter our attitudes to be in line with our behaviour.

• Post-decision dissonance occurs when we experience dissonance after a major decision, such as a big purchase. One famous study on post-decision dissonance was conducted by Jack Brehm in 1956.

He asked people to rate household appliances. After they had rated the appliances, he told them that they could have one of the appliances as a gift. He asked them to choose one of two appliances that they rated equally. After they chose which appliance they wanted as a gift, he had them rate the appliances again. This time, they rated the one they chose as being better than the one they didn’t choose.

People are most likely to experience post-decision dissonance if their decision is irrevocable. That is, after you’ve made a decision, if you can’t change your mind, you are more likely to experience post-decision dissonance and, as a result, are more likely to change your beliefs.

• Counter-Attitudinal Advocacy –  Another phenomenon related to cognitive dissonance is counter-attitudinal advocacy. In counter-attitudinal advocacy, people are forced to state an attitude in public that goes against their actual beliefs. If they are coerced or forced into stating the attitude, their beliefs will not change. However, if there isn’t an external reason for stating the belief, they will most likely change their beliefs to match their public statement.

Leon Festinger conducted a famous experiment on cognitive dissonance and counter-attitudinal advocacy. In it, subjects were asked to perform a boring task. After doing the task, the subjects were offered either $20 or $1 to lie to another person and say that the task was interesting and fun.

Rosenberg’s affective-cognitive consistency theory

M.I. Rosenberg has suggested the affective-cognitive consistency theory which is concerned with the consistency between a person’s overall attitude or effect towards an object or issue and his beliefs about its relationship to his more general values. This theory is concerned mainly with what happens within the individual when an attitude changes. It assumes that the relationship between the affective and cognitive components of the attitude change when an attitude is altered.

The theory postulates the following points:

(i) A person’s effect towards or evaluation of the attitude object tends to be consistent- with this cognitive structural component.

(ii) When there is inconsistency beyond a certain level of tolerance, the individual is motivated to reduce the inconsistency and thereby to change one or both components to make them more consistent.

(iii) The theory, thus, suggests that changes in the affective component produce changes in the cognitive component in order to bring about consistency between the two.

(iv) The theory also suggests that persuasive communication can also be used to change attitudes, by devaluating the goals themselves.

Kelman’s Three Process Theory 

Kelman suggested that attitude organisation is influenced by three distinct processes of social influence namely, Compliance, Identification and Internalisation. 

• Compliance can be said to occur when an individual accepts influence from another person or from a group because he hopes to achieve a favourable reaction from the other. Here, the expression of opinion, despite the fact that privately the person may not agree with it, is instrumental in gaining some reward or avoiding it. Thus an employee knowing that his boss is proud of the jokes he tells may laugh heartily at them even though he does not think they are funny. In this way he is able to avoid his boss’s displeasure. 
• Identification can be said to occur when an individual adopts behaviour derived from another person or a group because this behaviour is associated with a satisfying self-defining relationship to this person or group. 

This is a means of establishing or maintaining a desirable relation to the other or group and of supporting the self-definition that is part of the relation. One form of identification tales is shown in attempts to be like the other person or to actually be the other person. This is commonly observed in children who copy the behaviour and attitude of their parents or other models. However, identification like compliance does not occur because the behaviour or attitude itself is satisfying to the individual. It occurs because of the satisfying relation to another person or group and it requires the activation of the relation in order for it to occur. 

• Internalisation occurs when an individual accepts influence because the induced behaviour is congruent with his value system.